Perceptions of Democracy, Beliefs about Classrooms,

Motivation to Learn, and Cognitive Engagement in Academic Work:

An Exploration of Socio-political Connections to Motivation to Learn in Slovakia and Spain

Barbara A. Greene

University of Oklahoma

barbara@ou.edu

Paper presented at the 9^th International Conference on Motivation, Lisbon, Portugal.

Can access this presentation: http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/G/Barbara.A.Greene-1/

Purpose

The major purpose of this study was to examine relations among perceptions of democratic principles and processes, academic motivation, strategy use, and beliefs about classroom structures among university students studying education in emerging and young democracies. I wanted to explore the possibility that the people studying education in countries with newer democracies will demonstrate connections between perceptions related to political processes and those related to motivation and beliefs about classrooms that promote motivation.

Background

• The present work is an extension of existing motivation research that examines the influences of student goals, perceptions of ability, and perceptions of classroom structures on engagement in academic work (e.g., Ames, 1992; Ames & Archer, 1988; Greene et al., in press; Greene et al., 1999; Greene and Miller, 1996; Meece et al., 1988; Miller et al., 1996; Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990; Pintrich & Garcia, 1991).
• The addition of perceptions of democracy to this line of research was influenced by school reform movements in the US (e.g., Coalition of Essential Schools and the Oklahoma Networks for Excellence in Education) and in Slovakia (e.g., the Orava Project) that focus on developing democratic schools.
• Perspectives on how to foster student motivation in schools endorse similar notions of democratic education in that they emphasize student autonomy and the development of self-regulation (e.g., Maehr and Midgley, 1991; Nicholls, 1989).

• Ames (1992) suggested that classroom structures related to tasks, autonomy, recognition, grouping, evaluation, and time (TARGET) are likely to influence adoption of mastery goals and support high perceptions of ability. Ames (1992) noted that instructional tasks that include moderate challenge, curiosity, active involvement, and a focus on learning have been found to encourage mastery goal adoption.

• Several studies have supported the predictions regarding the impact of the TARGET structures on student achievement goals and self-efficacy (e.g., Anderman & Midgley, 1997; Blackburn, 1998; Church, Elliot, & Gable, 2001; Greene et al., 2004; Nolen & Haladyna; (1990), Roeser, Midgley, & Urdan, 1996), and Young, 1997).
• Although socio-political influences on student motivation to learn are consistent with motivation theory (Maehr, 1984) and with evidence from socio-cultural research (e.g., Ogbu, 1991; Kao, Gibson, & Ogbu, 1996), such influences have not yet been empirically studied within a social-cognitive framework for understanding academic motivation.

Method

The sample consisted of university student volunteers from central Slovakia and northern Spain. There were 148 Slovakian students in a pedagogy program who completed the entire set of instruments. The Spanish sample consisted of 156 students who were in a teacher preparation program. Each group completed a set of paper-based instruments that had been translated into their first language, either Slovak or Spanish.

The students completed four surveys during one class session. The Attitudes Toward Politics and Political Process survey contained 28 items, 17 of which were on a 6 point agreement scale (1=strong disagree and 6=strongly agree) and 11 of which were on a 4 point frequency scale (0=never and 3= often). Items were developed based on the work of Hahn and Tocci (1990) and Torney, Oppenheim, and Farnem (1975). See Tables 1 and 2 in the handout.

The Approaches to Learning survey contained 50 on the same 6 point agreement scale (1=strong disagree and 6=strongly agree) as used for the Attitudes Toward Politics survey. The following constructs were measured: mastery goals (4 items), future goals (6 items), performance goals-avoidance (4 items), performance goals-approach (4 items), intrinsic value (2 items), future value (3 items), perceived ability (8 items), and strategy use (18 items). All questions asked about how students approached the learning in the class in which they took the surveys. See Table 3.

The Belief in Motivating Classroom Structures survey had 38 items which were based on the TARGET model proposed by Ames (1992) and tested as a scale by Blackburn (1998) and Greene et al., (2004). Sample items are shown in Table 4. All items were recoded such that a high score meant that the respondent endorsed the positive for motivation aspect of the item. For the purposes of this presentation, I collapsed the items into a single score, although theoretically there could be at least four subscales. The Cronbach alpha coefficient for the total score was .85. Subsequent work will break the down the scale into units that correspond to other work we have done that has supported three robust subscales.

Results

Intercorrelations across the surveys, that reached statistical significance at the p. < .01 level are shown in Tables. Six regression analyses were computed, 4 for each country, for the prediction of beliefs about motivating classroom structures, strategy use, and mastery goals. Using SPSS version 10, the forced entry procedure was used in which blocks of independent variables are entered sequentially and variables in a given block are evaluated simultaneously.

Multiple Regression Analyses

For the prediction of the Slovak Beliefs in Motivating Classroom Structures scores, we first entered the motivation and cognitive engagement scores and then the attitudes toward politics variables in a next block. The first set accounted for 14.2% of the variance (p. = .002), while the attitudes toward politics variables set accounted for another 24.8% (p. = .000). The overall analysis, with R² = .39, was statistically significant, F (18, 126) = 4.47, p. =.000. There were four (4) statistically significant Beta weights: strategy use (.32, p. =.000); democracy means choice about making money (.19, p.= .03); school is important for educating voters (.23, p. =.008); low efficacy for political process (.30, p. =.000).

There was a different pattern for the prediction of the Spanish Beliefs in Motivating Classroom scores using the same order of entry. The first set accounted for 22%of the variance (p. =.000), while the attitudes toward politics variables set accounted for another 10% (ns). The overall analysis, with R² = .32, was statistically significant, F (18, 118) = 3.12, p. =.000. There were four (4) statistically significant Beta weights: strategy use (.34, p. =.000); mastery goals (.30, p. =.009); performance-avoidance goals (.26, p. =.029); and earning money is important (.22, p.= .01).

For the prediction of the Slovak strategy use scores, I first entered the scores for goals and perceived ability, which accounted for 22% of the variance (p. = .000). Next I entered the attitudes toward politics, which accounted for another 5.8% of the variance (ns). The overall analysis, with R² = .27.8, was statistically significant, F (17, 138)= 3.19, p. =.000. There were two statistically significant Beta weights, for mastery goals (.356, p. =.001).

For the prediction of the Spanish strategy use scores, I again first entered the scores for goals and perceived ability, which accounted for 29.4% of the variance (p. = .000). Next I entered the attitudes toward politics, which accounted for another 5.2% of the (p. = .02). The overall analysis, with R² = .34.6%, was statistically significant, F (17, 316)= 9.86, p. =.000. There were (3) statistically significant Beta weights for mastery goals (.358, p. =.000), perceived ability (.19, p. =.000), and frequency of political discussion (.16, p. =.001).

For the prediction of the Slovak mastery goal scores, we entered we entered the Attitudes Toward politics variables, which accounted for 20% of the variance, F (12, 148) = 3.12, p. =.000. There were statistically significant Beta weights for frequency of political discussions (.19, p. =.01) and school is important for educating voters (.31, p. =.001).

For the prediction of the Spanish mastery goal scores, I entered the attitudes toward politics variables, which accounted for 7.6% of the variance, F (12, 338) = 2.31, p. =.008. The Beta weight for voting is one of the most important duties as citizens of my country was marginally statistically significant (.149, p. =.017).

Conclusions and Importance of this Work

These findings support the theoretical prediction that there are some connections between socio-political factors, such as attitudes towards politics in one’s country, motivation to learn in specific classes, and beliefs in motivating classroom structures. In particular, it seems that the mastery goals, which have very often been found to be positively related to cognitive engagement and achievement (e.g., Greene & Miller, 1996; Greene et al., 1999; Meece et al., 1988; and Nolen, 1988) are related to beliefs about democracy meaning citizen involvement in government, voting, and, to a somewhat lesser extent, choices about earning a living and making money. Additionally, mastery goals and strategy use were positively related to frequency of political discussions. A similar pattern of relationships, to that observed for mastery goals, was found with future goals, which is another achievement goal construct that has also been found to be critical for cognitive engagement and achievement (e.g., Greene et al., 1999; Miller et al., 1996). The present data suggest that attitudes toward politics are related to positive motivation. Additionally, it seems that there is a positive relationship between being concerned about political issues and engaging in strategy use while learning.

The present study also suggests that political attitudes were more likely to relate to beliefs about classrooms for Slovak students than for the Spanish students. This is consistent with what I predicted about newer democracies being more likely to show relationships since the saliency of the connections might be greater than for more seasoned democracies. Interesting, for both countries, issues of making money were seen as important for the good of the country.

There were also several findings that are difficult to interpret theoretically. In particular in the Spanish sample that role of performance avoidance for predicting beliefs about classroom practices that promote positive motivation. One always needs to keep in mind the possibility of Type I error when so many statistical tests are done one a single sample. Also, one should be careful, always, in interpreting correlational findings.

This work is important for motivation theory in that it provides empirical support for theoretical predictions. The present research should help us understand how perceptions of democratic practices at macro levels (i.e., the country) are related to students’ level of participation in learning. Additionally, there is a wealth of descriptive information concerning how students understand democracy in their countries and how they view classroom practices.

References

Table 1: Example Items related to Political Attitudes and Behaviors

1. My country's political system is a democracy.
2. Having the government controlled by the citizens of one's country defines what it means to be in a democracy.
3. Having multiple political parties to choose from defines what it means to be in a democracy.
4. Voting defines what it means to be in a democracy.
5. Freedom to make choices about work and about making money, in general, is what it means to be in a democracy.
6. Freedom to make choices about which political party will oversee the government is what it means to be in a democracy.
7. School is important in a democracy because the country needs educated people to vote.
8. School is important in a democracy because the country needs educated people to run for various offices
9. School is important in a democracy because the country needs educated people to participate in the open economy.
10. Voting is one of the most important duties as citizens of my country.
11. Earning our living is the most important duty as citizens.
12. I think people in the government do care what people like my family think.
13. What happens in the government will happen no matter what people do. It is like the weather, there is nothing people can do about it.*
14. There are some big, powerful people in the government who are running the whole thing and they do not care about us ordinary people. *
15. My family doesn't have any say about what the government does.*

Notes: Answered on a six point agreement scale; * summed for one variable capturing low efficacy for political influence

Political Discussion Items

How frequently have you engaged in discussion of the following topic in the last six months?

0 1 2 3

Never At least once More than once Often

1. Country’s Problems
2. National Candidate
3. Local Candidate
4. Role of Press in Politics
5. Trade with other countries
6. Unemployment
7. Government Involvement in Education
8. Taxes
9. Domestic Violence
10. Violence in the World
11. Political Unrest in World

Items for Goals, Perceived Ability, and Cognitive Engagement,

Variable & Example Item

I do the work assigned in this class because . . .

Sample Items from Survey of Beliefs about Classrooms

1. The teacher should explain ideas in ways that make the

information meaningful to the students. Task-mastery

2. Students learn best by participating in class activities

and discussions. Task-mastery

3. Only a few students can get high grades. Evaluation —R

4. The teacher should use more than one way to determine

5. The teacher should help students learn how to make decisions

about their learning Autonomy

6. The teacher should help students to take responsibility for their

learning. Autonomy

Slovak Pearson Product Moment Correlations between Political attitudes and Processes and Strategy use and Motivation

NOTES: * Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level (1-tailed). Listwise N=143; PG_AVD = Performance goals avoidance; PG_APP = Performance goals approach

Spanish Pearson Product Moment Correlations among Strategy use and motivation variables

NOTES: * Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level (1-tailed). Listwise N=143; PG_AVD = Performance goals avoidance; PG_APP = Performance goals approach