Islamic Education in
Joshua M. Landis
Assistant Professor of
History and School for International and Area Studies:
landis@ou.edu
Prepared for
“Constructs of Inclusion and
Exclusion: Religion and Identity Formation in Middle Eastern School Curricula”
Watson Institute
for International Studies
November 2003
Islamic
Education in
Islamic education in Syrian schools is traditional,
rigid, and Sunni. The Ministry of Education makes no attempt to inculcate notions
of tolerance or respect for religious traditions other than Sunni Islam. Christianity
is the one exception to this rule. Indeed, all religious groups other than
Christians are seen to be enemies of Islam, who must be converted or fought
against. The Syrian government teaches school children that over half of the
world’s six billion inhabitants will go to hell and must be actively fought by
Muslims. Jews have their own status. The Jewish religion – the Torah and the
Jewish prophets – are considered divine – but the Jewish people, who, it is
claimed, deny their prophets, are fated to go to hell and must be eliminated.
At first view, one might expect
Nevertheless,
One can only wonder how long
History
of the
Religious education in
I asked some twenty Syrians to describe the
content of their religion classes in an attempt to gain an anecdotal idea of
what Syrians remember studying. All described having to memorize suras from the Quran and hadith; they all recalled learning about
the five pillars of Islam and how to pray. All claimed to have learnt general
values, such as obeying parents and teachers, the importance of honesty and
respect for other people. When asked about their instruction in jihad, and in
how subjects such as
The
Genesis of Arabist and Sunni Islamic Orthodoxy
The present school system was established in
1967, when
Public
and Private Schools
In the fall of 1967 following the Six Day
War, over 300 Christian schools and some 75 private Muslim schools were
nationalized.[3]
The nationalization of schools in
Since then, education has been largely
public, though middle and upper class Christians in the major cities managed to
preserve or revive a number of excellent private parochial schools. In the last
five or six years, wealthy Syrians of all confessions have been building
private schools in major Syrian cities to accommodate the growing demand for
superior and expensive education since the early 1990s. Some of these, such as
the Shwayfat school of Damascus, funded by business men Rami Makhlouf and Nadir
Qala`i, have been extremely successful and attract children from wealthy
families. Today, some 10% of secondary schools are privately funded.[5] Whether
a student goes to public or private school, however, does not make a difference
to his religious education: all must follow the same national curriculum.[6]
Illiteracy rates have been falling steadily
in
Methodology
This study is based on seven school texts prepared
for the 2002-2003 school year by the Ministry of Education. All are entitled: Islamic Education. I have used the texts
for the 4th, 5th, 7th, 9th, 10th, 11th,
and 12th grades. The 4th grade text is 150 pages long and
each successive text adds a few pages until reaching 240 pages in the 12th
grade. For the sake of simplicity, I will use internal citations when quoting
from the texts, giving the grade and page of the text separated by a colon.
There are no pictures or photographs included in the texts. Each book includes
the date it was first published and the year it last underwent important
revisions. The 4th grade text was written in 1999 and has not been
revised since. The fifth grade text was written in 2001 and is the only text
among these seven that has been rewritten under Bashar al-Asad. The 7th
grade text was written in 1967 and last revised in 1981; the 9th
grade text was written in 1979 and last revised in 1986; the 10th
grade text was written in 1986 and last revised in 1992; the 11th
grade text does not give the original date of publication but was revised in
1996; and the 12th grade text was written in 1969 and last revised
in 1997. The average text has not been revised for about 10 years and was
originally written well before that. Clearly, there has been little change in
the content of Syrian Islamic texts since the curriculum was established in
1967.
Even after the well publicized and damning
critique of the Syrian curriculum published in 2000 by the director of MEMRI,
Meyrav Wurmser, entitled, The Schools of
Ba`athism: A Study of Syrian Schoolbooks, there has been no change in the
language of the texts. All the anti-Zionist and anti-Semitic quotes
high-lighted by Wurmser in the texts for the 1999-2000 school year are still
included in the 2002-2003 texts.
Islamic
versus Arab Identity:
The twelfth grade text explains that Islam is
responsible for making the Arabs great. “The revelation of Islamic principles
transformed the Arabs into a unified community (umma) possessing a high human civilization which it spread to all
people” (12:149). Arabs, we learn, had many bad qualities before being reformed
by Islam. They fought amongst themselves, drank alcohol, killed female babies,
married many wives, were tribal and discriminatory, and worshiped idols. These
bad traits were ended by Islam. Pre-Islamic Arabs were not all bad, however.
Their morals were good because of their Arab blood (12:149-152). We are told
that even before Muhammad revealed Islam, Arabs had superior moral qualities,
such as, “bravery, manliness, generosity, patience, abstinence, and the
honoring of agreements, love of freedom and hospitality.” How did they acquire
these good qualities? The answer, we are told, is because they “run in their
veins with their blood” (12:150). Islam transformed Arabs from being a generous
but divided group of sinners into to a virtuous and unified people with a
divine mission.
Islam directed the Arabs along a more
“positive, refined, and advanced” path (12:154). It also united them as a
people and gave them a single objective, which was to carry the Islamic message
to other peoples so they might be elevated by Islam as well. Today, it is the
responsibility of “the Arabs to carry the Islamic message to the entire world,”
because it is the highest form of humanity.
This mission is more important today than ever before, the twelfth grade
text explains, because the world is now in a crisis of “complete materialism”
and faces many “disasters, catastrophes and problems.” Chief among them is the
evil of nuclear destruction (12:156). These dangers threaten to destroy human
values, but they can be turned back if people embrace the “spiritual and human
values of Islam” (12:156). “It is the duty of the Arab World to save humanity
and human values” (12:156). Although Arabs had certain virtues before the
advent of Islam, their religion set them on the divine path of saving humanity.
To be an Arab is good, but to be a Muslim is better, and being both is the
best.
Islam and Arabism are further linked, we find
out, because to become Muslim is to become Arab. The spread of Islam and
knowledge of the Quran, readers are told, “is the best way to Arabize non-Arabs
and spread Arab thought and culture to hundreds of millions of non-Arabs,”
because all Muslims feel that the Arabic language is “their language” (10:
211). Syrian children learn that not only Islamic culture should be spread to
the rest of the world but so should Arab culture and language, because the
values of Islam and Arabism are inextricably linked and should serve as a model
for others. The message for non-Muslims in these texts is that they cannot be
the best Arabs.
The
Foundations of Islamic Government
The government is to be an Islamic State
without separation of church and state. The student is constantly reminded that
the Islamic state is a divine order whose wisdom, justice, and laws are imposed
by God. The chapter of the twelfth grade text entitled, “The System of
Government in Islam,” concludes with the following sentences:
We
can summarize everything in this chapter by explaining that this system is a
divine system of independent laws and principles. It has its own
characteristics and unique benefits because it is the imprint of God (12:173)
Although the texts make no mention of
“democracy” or “republicanism,” they do insist on consultation and popular
participation in government. All the same, when faced with the ultimate
question of who should rule – man or God – God naturally wins out. The Islamic
ruler must confer with and be guided by a shura
or advisory council as well as by the people (12:168-171; 9:130). We are told
that “the Islamic community implements its power to choose its leader by voting
and the free expression of opinion,” but the consultative process is not
described in detail (12:170). The ruler’s term of office is not limited to a
defined period, but can be extended indefinitely so long as the people support
the ruler. An Islamic ruler should take advice from his advisory council, which
should be made up of “men of religion and fiqh and of people who have
specialties in all different walks of life” (12:171). The primary duty of the
ruler is to “follow the book of Allah and the Sunna of his Messenger by
implementing Islamic life in all different fields, and he must protect Islam
from its internal and external enemies” (12:171). Though the ruler must be a
Muslim and must know “the aims and judgments of shari`a law,” the texts do not
explicitly state that he must have formally studied Islam or be an Imam
(12:170-171). All the same, knowledge of Islam and its laws is the major
qualification for all politicians and state employees.
It is incumbent on citizens of the Islamic
state to advise the ruler and show him the right path. Their responsibility is
to observe his behavior and actions in order to direct him. If he persists in
going astray and loses his qualification to rule entirely, the people are to
“withdraw their trust from him” (12:173). The ruler can be removed if Muslims
agree unanimously to do so when he loses his ability to carry out his duties
(12:170). How this is to be accomplished is not explained and no defined powers
to limit the executive are given to the people.
The power and form of the legislative council
is also not spelled out. A constitution giving defined power and sovereignty to
the people is something the authors of these texts are unwilling to advocate.
No doubt, the authors are circumspect about opposing the practices of the ruler
in
The authors of the texts are bolder in
discussing the judiciary. “Justice in
Islamic government” the authors proclaim, “is completely independent from the
power of the ruler.” The judge is to rule according to shari`a law. “No one can
change or manipulate this. The ruler, the judge, and the people are equal in
submitting to the law of God” (12:166). Although there is a place for ijtihad and human judgment, it is
limited (12:167). The overriding principle of Islam is justice, we are told. “Neither
emotions, family relations, friendship, wealth, poverty nor the power of the
ruler should influence the court’s decision” (12:167). Equally, Islam brings
justice to all humankind. There is to be no favoritism of “the Arab over the foreigner,
white people over blacks, the rich over the poor” and “there is to be no
discrimination based on religious sect (tawa’if)
or social class in terms of rights and duties (duties).” “All people are equal
before the law (12:66).”
Christians
and Jews as Protected Communities
Christian and Jewish citizens of the Islamic
state enjoy certain rights as dhimma
(a protected community) equal to those of Muslims. In a section entitled, “the
rights of non-Muslim citizens,” the authors explain that non-Muslim minorities
are called “ahl al-dhimma for whom
Islam has organized many rights in addition to general human rights.” The most
important of these are “equality between them and Muslims in terms of
protection of life, money, and honor; freedom of religious belief, worship, and
practice; and the freedom to apply personal law according to their beliefs.”
These rights cannot be taken away from them so long as they are “within the
framework of the dhimma of the
Islamic state and under its protection” (12:162). Syrian students in these
passages are instructed that Islam advocates equality between all the people of
the book.
Equal political rights, as opposed to
civil and religious rights, are not extended to dhimma, however, as Muslims are to rule. The executive and the
judicial branches of government should be staffed by Muslims. The legislature
is not forbidden to dhimma, for the shura
is to be open to people of diverse qualifications in order to represent the
needs and experience of the community. All the same, because the leading
qualification for a deputy is knowledge of Islam and fiqh, non-Muslims are put
at a distinct disadvantage. Quite clearly the notion of an Islamic state
implies that non-Muslims are second class citizens, who participate only
tangentially in directing and carrying out the affairs of state. Although
protected, they cannot lead.
Heaven is accessible to Christians but
denied to Jews. We are told that the first people to cross into heaven at the Day
of Judgment are “Muhammad and his people.” They are succeeded by “the prophets
and their followers (10: 153).” This means the followers of Moses and Jesus and
indicates that all people of the book – Christians and Jews – can go to heaven.
However, in an earlier section of the tenth grade text, we are told that the
tribe of
The texts deal with religious sectarianism as
every literalist must – by blaming bad blood and squabbling between the sects
on the non-believers for failing to recognize the true faith. The Syrian texts
decry sectarianism (ta’ifiyya) and
the spirit of chauvinism it produces; yet they also insist that Islam is the
best and most complete religion. This contradiction is clearly expressed in the
following passage of the ninth grade text:
Faith
in all the prophets and divine books ends hateful religious and sectarian
divisions. The reason for sending different prophets in different ages was to
gradually prepare humanity to accept religion and to be able to discern the
most complete religious message, which is Islam. The reason for this was not to
spread the spirit of division between people, because God definitely did not
intend that (9:110).
God,
students are instructed, intended all humanity to accept each new wave of
religious revelation as it came down from heaven. God did not intend for the
people of the world to resist each new phase of revelation and get mired in the
earlier and more primitive phases of revelation, such as Judaism and
Christianity. The resistance of Christians and Jews to embrace God’s final
revelation makes them responsible for sectarianism. The reason God did not
reveal Islam in one original revelation, we are told, rather than sending down
first the Torah and then the Gospels, is because humans needed to be gradually
prepared and educated to recognize the full truth of Islam (9:110). The Old and
New Testament are viewed as the prolegomena to the real thing, the spirituality
advanced by the Quran. Thus we may conclude that Judaism is the most primitive
of the revealed religions, Christianity is an incomplete advance on Judaism,
and Islam is the final and complete message. A firm hierarchy of religions is
established; Islam is at the top and the earlier revelations following down the
line based on the date of their historical appearance.
Clearly, the difference in the
treatment between Christians and Jews is political. Because the Christian
population of
Atheists
and Pagans
At the very bottom of the hierarchy
beneath the revealed religions of the “people of the book,” are the belief
systems of the rest of humanity, who are categorized as “Atheists and Pagans.”
Only one paragraph is devoted to them in the twelve years of Syrian schooling
and it is tucked away in the ninth grade text under the subtitle, “Islam Fights
Paganism and Atheism.” It explains that “pagans are those who worship something
other than God, and atheists are those who deny the existence of God.” Islam
must fight these two belief systems because they “are an assault to both
instinct and truth.” We are told that these belief systems “contradict the
principle of freedom of belief.” This is because “Islam gives freedom of belief
only within the limits of the divine path,” which “means a religion descended
from heaven.” Because pagan religions were not revealed by God, they are
considered an “inferior” form of belief that reflects an “animal
consciousness.” How should Muslims deal with these peoples who comprise half of
humanity? Students are instructed that “Islam accepts only two choices for Pagans:
that they convert to Islam or be killed (9:128).” The Islam of Syrian texts
does not have a happy formula for dealing with non-believers. Perhaps in
recognition of this failing, the ministry of education has buried a mere six
sentences on the subject into the middle of its ninth grade text.
Jihad
and
The notion of jihad and the struggle
against
Our
jihad duty today is a fard `ayn
because our countries have been exposed to enemy attack and because part of our
land has been occupied by Zionist gangs which threaten our very existence. It
is therefore the duty of every Muslim to unite in one rank to take back his
land and honor by every means possible (9:166).
School
children are told that to be martyred while fighting for their country and
faith is a privilege which will be rewarded not only in the next life but also
in this life.
They learn how the president and state reward
the families of those who have given their lives to defend the homeland and
compatriots. Even if
The
president-leader takes unlimited care of the families of martyrs in order to
guarantee a life of freedom and honor for them, both financially and socially.
The children of martyrs are provided with special care, education, and
upbringing. The children of martyrs are given special schools with the most
modern methods and ways of teaching. Last but not least, their residences are
provided free (9:79).
Although
Asadism is manifest in the Syrian religious texts, references to the president
are infrequent and have no comparison with the Iraqi schoolbooks in which
Saddam Hussein was featured even in the most mundane exercises.[10]
In some Syrian texts, particularly during the
early years of schooling, jihad is hardly mentioned. For example, the fifth
grade textbook, which was newly written in 2001 – a year after Bashar al-Asad
came to power – mentions jihad only twice, and then, only in passing. Moreover,
it contains no mention of
In the ninth grade textbook originally
written in 1969 and last revised in 1986, jihad is mentioned on 22 pages out of
200, or roughly one tenth of the text.
Our youth should ignore those traitors who
encourage them to surrender to
Although some Syrians are careful to draw a
distinction between Zionism and Jews, this is not a distinction made in
The
Jews took advantage of Muhammad’s forgiveness in the old days. They exploited
his forgiveness in order to deceive the Muslims and this is a characteristic of
traitors and betrayers in every time and place. This is an indication of the
evil enemy characteristics that are imbedded in the personality of the Jews.
This confirms that it is dangerous to live with or near them. This danger
threatens the existence of the Arab and Islamic world with destruction and
disappearance (10:78).
Because
the Jews seek to destroy the Islamic world, the only proper response for
Muslims is to “eliminate” the Jews from their midst. This is stated
unequivocally in the tenth grade text.
The
logic of justice requires the application of a single inescapable verdict on
the Jews; namely, that their criminal intentions be turned against them and
that they be eliminated (isti’salihim).
The duty of Muslims of our time is to pull together, to unite their ranks, and
to wage war on their enemy until Allah hands down his judgment on them and on
us (10:79).
Mayrav
Wurmser, in her study of Syrian school textbooks, concludes that the Ba`thist
government in Syria will have a very hard time making peace with Israel because
recognizing the Jewish state will shake the ideological and structural
“foundations of Syria’s Ba`athist regime.” Peace would call into doubt
emergency rule and notions of perpetual revolution and sacrifice that bolster
Ba`thi rule, not to mention the many injunctions against trusting Jews and
allowing them to continue their occupation of Islamic lands.[11]
Many Arabs argue against this dire interpretation. Munthar Haddadin, a past
Jordanian Minister, who was a leading negotiator of the Jordanian peace
agreement with
Once
the leaders decide they want peace and negotiate with
Egypt and Jordan have made peace with Israel
despite textbooks that were much the same as Syria’s; nevertheless, Jordan’s
textbooks have not been substantially changed since the peace, (I will see what
the Jordan paper says about this and revise accordingly) nor has the peace been
an easy one. Popular animus in
Colonialism
and the Backwardness of the Islamic World
Backwardness in the Islamic World, Syrian
students are instructed, is due to the incorrect understanding of Islam caused
by colonialists and their agents. The ninth grade text states:
“The
primary reason for backwardness in our society is the incorrect understanding
of Islam. This is because the colonialist and his agents have perverted some
aspects of Islam and caused false understandings of the true path in order to
distance Muslims from science and productive work in all fields of life”
(9:161).
What
are some of these perversions? The ninth grade text gives several examples of
verses from the Quran that are widely misunderstood. All have to do with the
notions of fate and free will. The texts claim that many Muslims believe that
they don’t have to work in this life because God will provide for them. Another
misconception that leads to inactivity among Muslims is the belief that leading
a pious life means renouncing the present world including hard work and study.
Students are advised that hard work and study are forms of worship and a means
to get into heaven (9:162). Ironically, these commendable injunctions to young
Muslims that they take responsibility for their lives are followed by accusations
that external manipulation and skullduggery has caused their backwardness and
that they are not responsible themselves. Who are these colonialists? The Turks,
the French, the Americans, perhaps Westerners in general? We are not told.
Neither are we given a clue to who their agents are? Now that almost 60 years
separates
Alawis,
Druze, and Isma’ilis
Over 16% of Syrians are heterodox
Muslims, yet no mention of the different sects of Islam is made in the
textbooks. Not only are Alawites, Druze, and Isma’ilis not mentioned, but no
mention is made of Shi`a Islam as a whole. Islam is presented as a monolithic
religion and Sunni Islam is it. Sunni children are given no guidance on how
they should relate to or think of Muslims whose ritual practices and
interpretation of the Quran differ from their own. Even more troubling,
perhaps, is that heterodox Muslim children are given no explanation for why
their communities practice Islam differently than the instructions provided in
their school texts. Because of the narrow Sunni definition of Islam given in
the texts, non-Sunni Muslims are forced to either deny their communal
differences or to avow that they belong to a religion that is not Islam. It is
quite common in
When I asked Druze friends and
acquaintances what percentage of Syrians accepted the notion that the Druze are
Muslims, the unanimous answer was “3%” – the percentage of Druze in Syria. Although,
Druze in
All other Muslims, including the heterodox
sects, were grouped together in the 1953 Law of Personal Status passed under
President Shishakli. Based on Egyptian example, this law integrated all Muslims,
except the Druze, into one synthetic court system based on Hanafi law and makes
no distinction between them.[15]
Alawis, who insisted they belong to the Ja`afari Shi`a mathhab (Twelver Shi’a Islam) as early as 1920, despite French
attempts to encourage them to define themselves as a separate religion, have
persisted in their drive to be recognized as main-stream Muslims ever since.[16] This
insistence has brought rich political rewards – Alawis enjoy all the rights of
Muslims and can hold the office of President, which must be filled by a Muslim
according the constitution. Nevertheless, Alawites have paid a steep price for
political success by denying their distinct religious tradition. In essence,
they have given up their religion for political power and equality.
The Alawis I asked to speculate on the success
of this bargain were considerably more optimistic about the percentage of
Syrians who considered them Muslim than were their Druze counterparts. Several claimed
that 50% of Syrians or more accepted them as Muslims. The reason Alawis give
for their success is that they try harder than the Druze to be like Sunni
Muslims and to assimilate to the textbook version of Islam. One native of
Latakia, an Alawi woman who is in her thirties with an advanced degree, gave the
following explanation:
We are accepted as Muslims because we have
worked hard to be accepted. We have copied the Sunnis. Some Alawis cover their
hair and wear hijab, either for personal reasons or when they marry Sunnis. We
don’t eat ham, and even when we do, we don’t eat it in front of people. We fast
– or we pretend to fast; out of respect for others, we don’t eat in front of
them during Ramadan. We have built mosques in our major towns. Some Alawis go
to Friday prayer and to the Hajj. My grandfather was a modern shaykh who
encouraged everyone to pray at the mosque in Jable. The charitable foundation
established and run by Jamil al-Asad (the brother of former President Hafiz
al-Assad) finances hundreds of Alawis to go on Hajj, and the women working for
the organization have to wear the hijab. Hafiz al-Asad prayed in Mosque and
fasted. When his mother and son died, he prayed for them in Mosque. He built
the Na`isa mosque in Qardaha, his home town, in the name of his mother. All
these things are proof to Sunnis that we try hard to be part of Islam and like
Sunnis. They accept it. We have succeeded.
The
Muslim identity of Alawites in
When I asked my Alawi informant if the Druze
were accepted as Muslims, she answered:
They have their identity. They don’t
pretend that they are Muslims. Of course, I don’t know a lot about them because
we don’t have any in Latakia. I think they are classified as non-Arab in the
minds of most people. They are separate and a small group; most live in
Suwayda’.
Our Sunni Damascene friends always talk
about them as strange and different. “Ya latif! Shoo byakaloo!” they would say,
as if they eat horrible things. Of course it isn’t only their food, they are
talking about. And they say these things about the Druze to us without
hesitation, and don’t consider that we (the Alawis) are like the Druze. The
Druze don’t pretend to be part of Islam. I never saw a Mosque in Suwayda’.
There is only Islam and Christianity in
When
I asked the Alawi if she had made a mistake in suggesting that people
classified the Druze “as non-Arabs,” rather than as “non-Muslims,” she said,
“no.”
To be Arab, in the end, you have to be
Muslim; everything else is not that important. Ultimately, Islam is the
measurement of `
Also, the names of their children – they
are all western: Joan, Andrew, Charles, Lara, George, Hanna …. None of these
names are Arab. They used to name their kids Khalil, `Abdullah, Hasiiba, etc.
This is an indication that they don’t feel Arab. What is the meaning of these
names? They have no meaning in Arabic.
They wear gold chains around their necks and
wrists. They say, ‘merci, bonjour,
bonsoir, and bonne fête.’ I used
to tell my Christian boyfriend that everyone would know he wasn’t Arab if he
said these things, but he didn’t care. The Christians criticize the Sunna in a
terrible way – how they are religious and how they treat their women. They are
embarrassed by Islam and don’t defend the Arabs. In the end, the Sunna are the
Arabs. We [the Alawis] don’t speak about Islam like the Christians do. We are
Arab.
The
identification of Arabness and Islam was total for my Alawi informant. She
insisted that because Christians believe in the trinity, they cannot be real
Arabs. “Because Christians cross themselves and say, ‘the Father, the Son, and
the Holy Ghost,’” she argued, “they deny Islam.” The first thing “we had
learned in Islam class is that ‘God has no equal and never gave birth.’”
Because the Christian espousal of the trinity denies this Islamic injunction, she
claimed, they cannot feel Arab and be Arab.
That an Alawi would internalize this
association between Sunni Islam and Arabness is a testament to the
effectiveness of Islamic education in Syrian schools and the socialization
process in
The Syrian government and the Ba`th Party ostensibly
espouses secularism and equality between all Arabs regardless of their religion.
This message of equality is directly undermined by the state Islamic curriculum.
By teaching that Muslims should rule over non-Muslims and that they are the
best Arabs as measured by their faith in God, the government contradicts the
message that Christian and Muslim Arabs are equal (11: 227).
Can the hyper-conformism of
The Alawites refuse to be annexed to Muslim
Syria because, in
Sulayman al-Asad’s anxiety about being forced
into a state of Muslim Arabs is palpable in his petition to the French. His
heirs have worked hard to gain acceptance as Muslims and Arabs in
All the same,
Conclusion
The religious curriculum, however, contradicts
the Ba`th Party’s original impetuous to secularism. By setting out a clear
hierarchy of virtue among peoples, with Muslims at the top of the scale as
God’s preferred people and Christians, Jews, polytheists and atheists falling
below them in descending order, Syria’s Islamic texts undercut the notion that
Arabs or Syrian citizens are equal. Non-Muslims are defined as strangers to the
Arabo-Islamic project who enjoy rights so long as they are “under Muslim protection.”
Indeed, the Arab and Islamic missions as described in the texts are so closely
identified with each other that school children may easily confuse ethnicity
with religion to assume that heterodox Muslims are lesser Arabs and Christians hardly
Arab at all.
The politics behind
It should be noted that
That being said,
Bashar al-Asad has called for reform of
The irony in
Due to the rise of political Islam in the
Islamic World, liberalization seems a distant possibility. Other “secular”
states in the region, such as
[†] Syrian Jews are an
exception to this rule. Almost all have left
[‡] In
[1] I would
like to thank my wife, Manar Kachour Landis, for explaining the Syrian
education system to me and for assisting in the research for this article in
numerous ways.
[2]
[3]
Library of Congress Country Studies. “
[4] Mouawad, "
[5] The
Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace, Jews, Zionism and Israel in
Syrian Textbooks, 2002.
[6]
Explained to me by Dima Kashour who taught at Shwayfat.
[7]
World Bank - “
[8] Fargues, "Les chrétiens
arabes d'Orient: une perspective démographique," pp. 59-78.
[9]
The Center
for Monitoring the Impact of Peace, “The West, Christians and Jews in Saudi Arabian
Schoolbooks.”
[10] Tierney,
“Zionist Intruders,”
[11]
Wurmser, The Schools of Ba`athism, 54.
[12]
Interview with Dr. Munthar Haddadin in
[13]
Landis, “Shishakli and the Druzes.”
[14]
Interview with
[15] Anderson,
“Syrian Law of Personal Status.”
[16]
On the Alawis under the French see, Landis, Nationalism, Chap. 2. On the effort of
Alawites to gain recognition as Twelver Shiites, see
[17]
al‑`Alawi writes in Al‑`Alawiyyun,
p. 12:
"The
Alawites are nothing but Twelver, Imami Shiites. If some heterodoxy has
appeared among the uneducated members of the community, that is of no account,
for the value of a people, their religion, and their culture cannot ultimately
be based on the actions of the ignorant among them. The Alawites do not differ
from Shiites except that some of them adhere to the tariqa al‑Janblaniyya
which is a Sufi tariqa like all other Sufi tariqas.... in which some of the
beliefs of the prophet's house have been added. Yes, the most that can be held
against the Alawites is that some have constructed cultic shrines, but we
believe that this would not have happened if the community had not suffered
through an oppressive period of history during which the conditions of the
community were terrible. The greatest proof of this can be found in the
conditions existing today: they have built mosques, they pray, give alms, and
go on pilgrimage to the holy city.... They have performed the duties of God
ever since the mantle of oppression and injustice was lifted from their
shoulders and began to enjoy a bit of freedom."
[18] Matti Moosa, Extremist
Shiites: The Ghulat Sects,
[19] MEMRI, “Iraqi Press,”
[19] Charles M.
Sennott, The Body and the Blood: The
Sources:
*
`Ali `Aziz Ibrahim al‑`Alawi, Al‑`Alawiyyun,
Fida'iyyu al‑Shi`a al‑Majhulun,
* J.N.D. Anderson, “The Syrian Law
of Personal Status,” Bulletin of the
*
* The Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace, “Jews, Zionism and Israel in
Syrian Textbooks,” 2002.
http://www.edume.org/reports/6/toc.htm
----
“The West,
Christians and Jews in Saudi Arabian Schoolbooks,” http://www.edume.org/reports/report1.htm,
2002.
* Philippe Fargues, "Les chrétiens arabes d'Orient: une perspective
démographique," Les communautés chrétiennes dans le monde musulman arabe,
ed. Andréa Pacini (Beirut: Proche-Orient Chrétien Ste. Anne- ISSR,
1997).
* Joshua Landis, Nationalism and the Politics of Za`ama: the
Collapse of Republican Syria, 1945-1949, Ph.D. dissertation,
* ---- “Shishakli and the
Druzes: Integration and Intransigence,” in T. Philipp & B. Schäbler, eds., The
* Martin Kramer, "
* Library of Congress Country Studies, “
*
The Middle East Media Research Institute, “Editorials from the New Iraqi Press,” Special Dispatch Series -
No. 568, Dispatch (7), September 5, 2003, viewed October 3, 2003,
http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=countries&Area=iraq&ID=SP56803
* Ray J. Mouawad, "
*
*
John Tierney, “See
Jane Run From the Zionist Intruders,” New
York Times, read on
* World Bank - “Syrian Republic
Data Profile,” source, World Development
Indicators Database, August 2003, viewed on
* Meyrav Wurmser, The
Schools of Ba'athism: A Study of Syrian Textbooks,
[20] Charles M.
Sennott, The Body and the Blood: The